Research and analysis
Global high consequence infectious disease events: summary March 2022
Updated 15 May 2025
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Interpreting this report
The report provides detailed updates on known, high consequence infectious disease (HCID) events around the world as monitored by UK Health Security Agency바카라 사이트™s (UKHSA) epidemic intelligence activities.
It is divided into 2 sections covering all the defined HCID pathogens. The first contains contact and airborne HCIDs that have been specified for the HCID Programme by NHS England. The second section contains additional HCIDs that are important for situational awareness.
Each section contains information on known pathogens and include descriptions of recent events. If an undiagnosed disease event occurs that could be interpreted as a potential HCID, a third section will be added to the report.
Likelihood assessment
Included for each disease is a 바카라 사이트˜likelihood assessment바카라 사이트™ 바카라 사이트“ the likelihood of a case occurring in the UK 바카라 사이트“ based on past UK experience and the global occurrence of travel-associated cases. There are currently 3 categories: Low, Very low and Exceptionally low.
When considering clinical history, it is important to remember that cases can and do occur outside of the usual distribution area. It is not possible to assess accurately the risk of cases presenting to healthcare providers in England but taken together it is inevitable that occasional imported cases will be seen.
Events found during routine scanning activities that occur in endemic areas will briefly be noted in the report. Active surveillance, other than daily epidemic intelligence activities, of events in endemic areas will not be conducted (for example, actively searching government websites or other sources for data on case numbers).
The target audience for this report is any healthcare professional who may be involved in HCID identification.
Incidents of significance of primary HCIDs
Contact HCIDs
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF)
| Geographical risk areas | in Africa, the Balkans, the Middle East and Asia. First locally acquired case in () |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ bite from or crushing of an infected tick 바카라 사이트¢ contact with blood or tissues from infected livestock 바카라 사이트¢ contact with infected patients, their blood or body fluids |
| UKÂ experience to date | Two cases have been reported in individuals who have travelled to the UK from and |
| Likelihood assessment | Low 바카라 사이트“ rarely reported in travellers |
| Recent cases or outbreaks |
has been experiencing an outbreak of CCHF since February 2022. As of 14 March 2022, 6 cases have been reported, including 2 deaths. There are no known epidemiological links between the cases, and the source of infection has not yet been identified In the UK, a case of CCHF was reported in March 2022 following an initial positive test result. However, this case was not confirmed as CCHF on follow-up samples |
Ebola virus disease
| Geographical risk areas | |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ contact with or consumption of infected animal tissue (such as bushmeat) 바카라 사이트¢ contact with infected human blood or body fluids |
| UKÂ experience to date | Four confirmed cases (1 lab-acquired in the UK in 1976, 3 healthcare workers associated with West African epidemic 2014 to 2015) |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low 바카라 사이트“ other than during the West Africa outbreak, exported cases are extremely rare |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected cases were reported in March 2022 |
Lassa fever
| Geographical risk areas | Endemic in sub-Saharan West Africa |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ contact with excreta, or materials contaminated with excreta from an infected rodent 바카라 사이트¢ inhalation of aerosols of excreta from an infected rodent 바카라 사이트¢ contact with infected human blood or body fluids |
| UKÂ experience to date | 3 travel-related cases reported in . Prior to this, had been reported since 1971, all in travellers from West Africa |
| Likelihood assessment | Low 바카라 사이트“ overall, Lassa fever is the most common imported viral haemorrhagic fever (VHF) but is still rare |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | In 2022, as of 6 March, has reported 24 suspected and 17 confirmed cases of Lassa fever, including 7 deaths. In , 112 suspected and 24 confirmed cases (15 deaths) were reported as of 21 November In , there have been 3,542 suspected and 681 confirmed cases of Lassa fever reported between 1 January and 27 March 2022. A total of 127 deaths have been reported amongst confirmed cases (case fatality rate of 18.6%). This is an increase in the number of reported cases when compared to the same period in 2021 (1,430 suspected, 230 confirmed cases and 49 deaths amongst confirmed cases, with a case fatality rate of 21.3%) In 2022, as of 20 March, 4 cases of Lassa fever have been reported in . A total of 11 deaths have been reported between 2021 and 20 March 2022 (out of 20 cases; resulting in a case fatality rate of 55%). From 2016 to 2020, the country observed a decline in annual reported cases. However, a subsequent increase occurred in 2021 (8 reported in 2020 compared to 16 in 2021) |
Marburg virus disease
| Geographical risk areas | Sporadic outbreaks have previously been reported in Central and Eastern Africa. A human case was reported in August 2021 in , this was the first case to be identified in West Africa |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ exposure in mines or caves inhabited by Rousettus bat colonies 바카라 사이트¢ contact with infected human blood or body fluids |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low 바카라 사이트“ globally, 5 travel-related cases have previously been reported in the literature |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected cases were reported in March 2022 |
Airborne HCIDs
Avian influenza A(H7N9) virus
| Geographical risk areas | All reported human infections have been acquired in |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected birds or their environments 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected humans (no sustained human-to-human transmission) |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low (UKHSAÂ risk assessment) |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in March 2022 |
Avian influenza A(H5N1) virus
| Geographical risk areas | Human cases predominantly in South East Asia, but also Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and Nigeria. A human case was reported for the first time in in 2022 |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected birds or their environments 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected humans (no sustained human-to-human transmission) |
| UKÂ experience to date | One case reported in |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low (UKHSAÂ risk assessment) |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in March 2022 |
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
| Geographical risk areas | The Arabian Peninsula 바카라 사이트“ Yemen, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ airborne particles 바카라 사이트¢ direct contact with contaminated environment 바카라 사이트¢ direct contact with camels |
| UKÂ experience to date | cases in total 바카라 사이트“ 3 imported cases (2012, 2013 and 2018), 2 secondary cases in close family members of the second case, 3 deaths |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low (UKHSAÂ risk assessment) |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | One confirmed case of MERS was reported in in March 2022. This is the first MERS case to be reported globally in 2022. This is the first case reported in Qatar since 바카라 사이트“ 24 cases have been reported in Qatar since 2014 |
Monkeypox virus
| Geographical risk areas | West and Central Africa |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with an infected animal (in an endemic country) or an infected person 바카라 사이트¢ contact with clothing or linens (such as bedding or towels) used by an infected person 바카라 사이트¢ direct contact with monkeypox skin lesions or scabs 바카라 사이트¢ coughing or sneezing of an individual with a monkeypox rash |
| UKÂ experience to date | As of the end of March 2022, there have been reported in the UK. In May 2021, a case of monkeypox was identified with prior travel from Delta State, Nigeria. Two family members were subsequently identified as having monkeypox Prior to these 3 cases, there were 4 cases of monkeypox reported in the UK, including 3 cases imported from Nigeria (2 in September 2018 and 1 in December 2019). One additional case, in 2018, was a healthcare worker who acquired infection following contact with contaminated bed linen |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low 바카라 사이트“ reported outside Africa for the first time in 2018. Since 2018, 8 importations of human cases of monkeypox have been reported in non-endemic countries in travellers to Israel (one case), Singapore (one case), the USA (2 cases) and the UK (4 cases) |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | In the (CAR), 4 cases of monkeypox, including 2 deaths, were reported on 6 March 2022 in the South East of the country. of monkeypox are reported in the CAR In the (DRC), a total of 704 cases, including 37 deaths (case fatality rate of 5.3%), have been reported in 2022, up to the 6 March. In the same period of 2021, there were 754 cases and 24 deaths reported. Overall, 3,091 cases including 83 deaths were reported in 2021 |
Nipah virus
| Geographical risk areas | South East Asia. Recent outbreaks in Bangladesh and India |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ direct or indirect exposure to infected bats 바카라 사이트¢ consumption of contaminated raw date palm sap 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected pigs or humans |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Exceptionally low 바카라 사이트“ no travel-related infections in the literature |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in March 2022 |
Pneumonic plague (Yersinia pestis)
| Geographical risk areas | Predominantly |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ flea bites 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected animals 바카라 사이트¢ contact with human cases of pneumonic plague |
| UKÂ experience to date | Last outbreak in the UK was in 1918 |
| Likelihood assessment | Exceptionally low 바카라 사이트“ no travel-related infections in the literature |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected cases of pneumonic plague were reported in March 2022. However, in the , media reported an outbreak of bubonic plague in Ituri Province. Up to the end of March, 25 suspected cases, including 2 deaths, have been reported |
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
| Geographical risk areas | Currently none. Two outbreaks originating from China in 2002 and 2004 |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ airborne particles 바카라 사이트¢ direct contact with contaminated environment |
| Â | Â |
| UKÂ experience to date | Four cases related to 2002 outbreak |
| Likelihood assessment | Exceptionally low 바카라 사이트“ not reported since 2004 |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases reported since 2004 |
Incidents of significance of additional HCIDs
Argentine haemorrhagic fever (Junin virus)
| Geographical risk areas | (central). Endemic to the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Santa Fe and La Pampa |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ direct contact with infected rodents 바카라 사이트¢ inhalation of infectious rodent fluids and excreta 바카라 사이트¢ person-to-person transmission has been documented |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Exceptionally low 바카라 사이트“ was identified in Belgium in 2020 |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in March 2022 |
Bolivian haemorrhagic fever (Machupo virus)
| Geographical risk areas | 바카라 사이트“ cases have been identified in the departments of Beni (Mamoré, Iténez and Yucuma provinces) and Cochabamba (Cercado province) |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ direct contact with infected rodents 바카라 사이트¢ inhalation of infectious rodent fluids and excreta 바카라 사이트¢ person-to-person transmission has been documented |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Exceptionally low 바카라 사이트“ travel-related cases have never been reported |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in March 2022 |
Lujo virus disease
| Geographical risk areas | Single case acquired in Zambia led to a cluster in South Africa in 2008 |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ presumed rodent contact (excreta, or materials contaminated with excreta of infected rodent) 바카라 사이트¢ person-to-person via body fluids |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Exceptionally low 바카라 사이트“ a single travel-related case has been reported. No cases have been reported anywhere since 2008 |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases reported since 2008 |
Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS)
| Geographical risk areas | Mainly reported from China (south-eastern), Japan and Korea. First ever cases reported in Vietnam and Taiwan in 2019. Serological evidence of SFTS in |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ presumed to be tick exposure 바카라 사이트¢ person-to-person transmission described in household and hospital contacts, via contact with blood or bloodstained body fluids |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Exceptionally low 바카라 사이트“ not known to have occurred in travellers |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in March 2022 |
Andes virus (Hantavirus)
| Geographical risk areas | Chile and southern Argentina |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ rodent contact (excreta, or materials contaminated with excreta from an infected rodent) 바카라 사이트¢ person-to-person transmission described in household and hospital contacts |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases in the UK |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low 바카라 사이트“ rare cases in travellers have been reported |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected cases of Andes virus were reported in March 2022. In , a case of hantavirus infection was reported in the Ñuble region during March 2022. The strain of hantavirus was not specified |
Avian influenza A(H5N6) virus
| Geographical risk areas | Mostly China. New strain in Greece in March 2017, and subsequently found in Western Europe in birds |
| Sources and routes of infection | Close contact with infected birds or their environments |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low 바카라 사이트“ not known to have occurred in travellers (UKHSAÂ risk assessment) |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | In March 2022, 3 human cases of avian influenza A(H5N6) were reported in mainland China, 2 in and one in , bringing the total number of human cases reported so far in 2022 to 17. Since 2014, 74 human cases have been reported in mainland China, 17 of which were reported in 2022 |
Avian influenza A(H7N7) virus
| Geographical risk areas | Sporadic occurrence in birds across Europe and the UK. A human case was reported in in 1996, 89 cases were reported in the in 2003, and 3 human cases of conjunctivitis associated with H7N7 were reported in in 2013 |
| Sources and routes of infection | 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected birds or their environments 바카라 사이트¢ close contact with infected humans (no sustained human-to-human transmission) |
| UKÂ experience to date | No known cases |
| Likelihood assessment | Very low 바카라 사이트“ human cases are rare, and severe disease even rarer |
| Recent cases or outbreaks | No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in March 2022 |